Aristotle’s most famous writing on ethics (Nicomachean Ethics) explores a fundamental question of morality: How should one live as a human being – as a social animal living among other social animals?

Philosophers have, broadly speaking, offered three types of answers to this question. Immanuel Kant, for example, saw ethics as a matter of duty, the universal set of obligations we each owe to others just because we are all human beings. Utilitarians like John Stuart Mill urge us to consider the consequences of our actions: act to produce the greatest good for our communities. Aristotle is associated with a third path: develop a virtuous character and live by it. Aristotle’s notion is, these days, called virtue ethics. Understanding virtue ethics can provide insights useful to the development officer who works with philanthropists and others inclined to make major gifts.

Following Aristotle’s insight, it is important to look at the character of the gift maker rather than to focus on his or her sense of obligation or their desire to create good for others as the engine that properly moves them to action.

This invites the question: What are the specific character traits that would bring a person to act philanthropically? Aristotle identifies a bundle of traits that constitute a person’s character. These are bravery, temperance, generosity, magnificence, mildness, truthfulness, wit and friendliness. We all have these traits to a greater or lesser degree. They come as a package. A “well-tuned” set of these traits, traits possessed without either excess or deficiency, are the mark of a virtuous person. When I say “we all have them” it is perhaps worth noting that Aristotle did not think just anyone had the potential to be virtuous. Virtue in his time applied to men of high caste and wealth. We are more inclined to see virtue as a universal opportunity. 

The challenge is the same, though: to develop a character free of excess or defect. So, for example, Aristotle counsels bravery that is neither reckless nor cowardly, he counsels truthfulness that shuns both bragging and lying, a temperament that is neither fiery nor bland, friendliness that is neither fawning nor distant and so on for each component of human character. The person with a well-tuned set of virtues, Aristotle might say, is best positioned to achieve a higher order goal, which might be, for example, a life of pleasure, a life of honor or a life of wealth.

Two of the traits in our character bundle should be of special interest to a development officer: generosity and magnificence. Generosity is pretty commonly understood. The generous person is neither showy nor stingy. A generous person might send a hospitalized friend flowers and a gift card – more than an email but less than an all-expense paid cruise to the Bahamas. Those on the tight-fisted end of the spectrum appear uncaring of others; those on the showy end invite speculation about ulterior motives.

Magnificence is less commonly appreciated these days. It is generosity on a very large scale. To even play on this field requires considerable wealth. To be magnificent, in Aristotle’s world, meant to use one’s wealth for an important public purpose but to do so in a way that was neither ostentatious nor self-serving. The virtuous character with wealth to share wears that wealth comfortably, neither demanding recognition nor avoiding it when making major gifts.

Why make the effort to be virtuous? Aristotle tells us that acting virtuously is not desirable for its own sake, but as a way of obtaining something we desire more. For example, pleasure, honors or wealth are most likely to bring satisfaction if we act virtuously and most likely to elude us if we act from an excess or deficiency of character. In other words, acting virtuously is the correct path to achieving pleasure, honors or wealth for those who desire them. Whichever of those a person might seek, Aristotle believed they are intermediary goals, not desired for their own sake, but desired for something greater.

That greater good is, ultimately, desired for its own sake and therefore is the highest good in the chain of desirables. The good that is desired for its own sake he calls “happiness.” If Aristotle is right about this, then development officers take note. It will be helpful for you to understand if philanthropists agree that they desire to be, and be known as, virtuous givers. Why are they interested in making a significant gift? Do they agree that the satisfaction that comes from making this level of gift is a source of happiness? From the perspective of virtue ethics, the value of the gift to the giver is not a tax deduction or a plaque on the wall, but an affirmation of the virtue of giving at one’s level of capability.

Development officers should be cautious about gifts offered from less virtuous character traits. For example, major gifts given that appear to be for the purpose of laundering the reputation of the giver or as an entrée to certain social circles have been known to reflect badly on the recipients. Think of fallout from gifts from Arthur Sackler or Jeffrey Epstein. If the motive for giving a major gift is not acting from virtue, there is a significant chance that there will be unhappiness down the road.